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| What in the past was not used for writing? The very first ink and writing tools. The emergence of writing |
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Clay books are the oldest. On still soft and moist clay, the words-icons were squeezed out with a sharp stick. Then the boards were dried and burned in ovens, like pots. Sometimes the record was very long and took up a lot of clay tablets. Out of a dozen, and sometimes out of hundreds of such pages, books were created. Such books were written in the ancient states of Mesopotamia and Assyria. In ancient Egypt, a plant was used as material for writing, which grew in abundance along the banks of the Nile River. This plant was called Papyrus. Thick trunks were cut into strips and dried. They were written on with sticks, dipped in ink or colored paints. Then the sheets were glued together and the book turned out in the form of a long scroll, usually about 6 meters long.
After reading, the scroll was folded into a tube and stored in a special case. For many centuries people have used papyrus. A 40-meter-long papyrus is stored at the British Museum in London, but scrolls of 45-meter length were found. A scroll is one continuous page. The scrolls contain documents, scientific papers, literary works of the peoples of the Ancient East, Greece and Rome.
When we try to imagine the beginning of Russian book writing, our thought necessarily refers to the history of writing. The importance of writing in the history of the development of civilization is difficult to overestimate. But people didn’t always master the art of writing. This art has developed for a long time, over many millennia.
A letter from Zhiznomir to Mikula. You bought a slave in Pskov, and the princess grabbed me for this (meaning: incriminating theft). And then the squad vouched for me. So let's go write a letter to that husband if he is a slave. And now I want, having bought horses and put [on a horse] a princely husband, [go] to confrontation. And you, if [still] did not take that money, do not take anything from him "
Papyrus and birch bark were replaced by new writing material - Parchment. Parchment was obtained from finely crafted bull skins; it was more convenient, and most importantly, more durable than papyrus and birch bark. But it was very expensive stuff. Depending on the format and number of sheets, one book required from 10 to 30 animal skins - a whole herd!
According to one of the scribes who worked at the turn of the XIV-XV centuries, three rubles were paid for the skin for the book. At that time, three horses could be bought with this money. Therefore, even when parchment came to Russia, birch bark continued to be used as cheaper material for a long time.
First, parchment books were made according to tradition in the form of scrolls, and then they began to bend a large sheet of parchment four times, in the form of a notebook. The word "notebook" just comes from the Greek "notebook he", which means "folded four". Several notebooks were stitched together and received a book very similar to the modern one. And such a book was called "CODE".
The first creators of the manuscript books were monks. Writing a manuscript is hard and exhausting work. Letter by letter was scribe, line by line. The working day lasted in the summer from sunrise to sunset, in winter they also captured the dark half of the day when they wrote by candlelight or torch.
The Ostromir Gospel is the oldest Russian manuscript book. It was written in the middle of the 11th century. More than 900 years ago, the book master, scribe Grigory, rewrote this gospel for the Novgorod posadnik Ostromir. The gospel was written for almost seven months. During the day, the scribe managed to write no more than 3 pages.
Books were usually written with a quill pen and ink. The king had the privilege of writing with a swan and even a peacock feather. The feather was certainly removed from the left wing of the bird, so that the bend was convenient for the right, writing, hand. The feather was degreased by sticking into hot sand, then the tip was obliquely cut off, split and sharpened with a special penknife. They also scraped up errors in the text.
Medieval ink, in contrast to the usual blue and black, was brown in color, since it was made on the basis of iron compounds, or, more simply, rust. Pieces of old iron were lowered into the water, which, rusting, painted it brown. Ancient ink recipes have been preserved. In addition to iron, oak and alder bark, cherry glue, kvass, honey, and many other substances were used as components, which gave the ink the necessary viscosity, color, and stability.
The first capital letter in the text - “initial” or “initial” - was most often written in red. Since then they say - "write from the red line." It was written out much larger than the main text, it was completely entwined with an ornament through which you could make out a mysterious beast, a bird or a human face.
In the 2nd century BC e. invented paper in China. It was cheaper stuff. Cai Lun invented the paper. He found a way to make paper from the fibrous inside of a mulberry bark. The Chinese have kept the secret of paper production for 800 years. Not a single writing material has received such recognition as paper.
Writing paper was cheaper than parchment and more convenient than birch bark. Therefore, in later times, only very valuable books were made on parchment, mainly necessary for church life: the Gospel, the Apostle, as well as synodics or annals, transmitted from generation to generation.
Among the ancient Russian writers were, of course, not only scribes, but also writers. They recorded folk traditions, described what was happening around the event, and wrote their compositions. Each chronicle begins with the words: “in the summer such and such” ... and the events that took place this year are reported. Messages are both short and long, sometimes they even include lengthy tales of important events. But sometimes the chronicler limited himself to a brief remark like: "In the summer of 6752 (1244) do not be quicker than nothing" (there was nothing). The oldest writer, whose name is well known to us, Nestor the chronicler is the author of the first history of the Russian state - Tales of Bygone Years.
The manuscript, which has come down to us from ancient times, is itself a witness to the era when it was created. Therefore, the manuscript books of Ancient Russia will always be an inexhaustible source for studying the history of the Russian people, their language, literature and art.
April 19, 1563 Fedorov opened in Moscow the first "print" in Russia, that is, a printing house. He opened it by imperial order. The printing press was then a matter of national importance, and without the instructions of the king no one dared to engage in typography.
The first printed book in Russian was published in March 1564. It was called the Acts and Epistles of the Apostles, although more often they simply say the Apostle. Ivan Fedorov and his assistant Peter Mstislavets have been working on this book for almost a year! Ivan the Terrible himself visited the printing house of Fedorov and was satisfied.
It was a rather puffy volume of church content. The printers wanted the book to look like old manuscript books. Therefore, its font was reproduced by handwritten letter, the first letter of each chapter was highlighted in red paint. The beginning of each chapter was decorated with a pattern on which vines with cedar cones intertwined.
And Ivan Fedorov created the alphabet using Slavic letters. This alphabet was printed, and they began to teach children not only from wealthy families, but also from poor ones. To decorate the pages, Ivan Fedorov invented and cut out various screensavers, endings. Page from the first printed ABC book of Ivan Fedorov 1574
Today, book-making processes are automated. But today the book goes a certain way before falling into our hands. 1. First of all, the author writes his work. 2. Submits it to the publisher. 3. Here the corrector checks and corrects errors in the text 4. The editor checks and prepares the text for printing 5. The artist creates illustrations for the book 6. And then the manuscript gets into the printing house Here it will go through many more automated processes
Electronic books (e-books) are classified as special tablet computers for displaying text information, which is presented in electronic form. The term "electronic book" refers to both reading devices and the books themselves in electronic form.
Their appearance is due to the development and specialization of tablet computers in general. In addition, modern e-books are often equipped with a touch screen and have an expanded set of functions. The first highly specialized device for reading electronic documents was developed in 1996. But it turned out too expensive and did not go into mass production.
Models that use electronic paper as a screen are very popular. Such models of electronic books began to be released in 2007. Already appeared modern models with color screens. An e-book with such a screen can be used for other purposes. For example, to surf the Internet or watch videos.
What awaits the book in the future? Many experts believe that the computer and the Internet will greatly displace print media. This process has already begun. However, most likely, they will complement each other. Indeed, if scientific information is more convenient and faster to receive through global computer networks, then an art book is much more pleasant to read, holding it in your hands.
Who want to be a millionaire? 10/14/17. Questions and answers The program “Who wants to become a millionaire?” All questions and answers: Leonid Yakubovich and Alexander Rosenbaum Fireproof Amount:200 000 rubles. 1. What is the name of the driver traveling long distances? · Shooter · scorer · trucker Sniper 2. What effect is said to produce an expensive item? · Clicks on a man purse · hits the pocket Shoots at the wallet · Spanks on a credit card 3. What is the name of the pig, the hero of a popular cartoon? · Frantik · Fintik · Fantik · Pound 4. How did the slogan of the era of socialism end: “The present generation of Soviet people will live ...”? Do not push · happily ever after · under communism · on Mars 5. What, according to the laws of physics, is lifting force acting? · Tower crane hook · airplane wing Alarm clock · Production growth 6. What is the name of the warehouse of property in a military unit? Roasting pan Steam room · capter · Dryer 7. What part of ginger is most often used in cooking? · root Stalk 8. How many millimeters per kilometer? · ten thousand · one hundred thousand · million · ten millions 9. What “flared up” in the verses from the movie “Jolly Fellows”? · iron · Cigarette 10. Where does the ashes of the American astronomer Eugene Shoemaker rest? · on Mars · On Jupiter · on the moon · on the ground 11. What pain did the poet Gerich Heine compare to love? With head With lumbar · with tooth With phantom 12. What position did Shota Rustaveli hold at the court of Queen Tamara? · treasurer Court poet · Main vizier Winning players amounted to 200,000 rubles. Alexander Revva and Vera Brezhneva Fireproof Amount:200 000 rubles. 1. Where do they usually put jam during tea drinking? · to the outlet In the plug In extension cord · In a tee 2. What do they say: “Neither light nor dawn”? · About an extinct fire · about early morning · About the ended fireworks · About burnt traffic jams 3. What card suit is often called "hearts"? · hearts 4. What are data warehouses on the Internet? · cloudy Fat Rain Rainbow 5, the website reports. What became the home of the heroes of the famous Beatles song? Blue trolley · yellow Submarine Green train Last train 6. What in the past was not used for writing? Papyrus · boomasea Parchment · clay tablets 7. What does a silver spider fill its underwater nest with? Wings of flies Seaweed · air bubbles Pearls 8. What liquid is not usually poured into? In retort · In the wineskin · In anchors · into the tube 9. What did Dr. Strange's cloak, the hero of cinema and comics, do? · speak Shoot · Make the owner invisible · to fly 10. Which of these poetic forms is the smallest in number of lines? · quatrain Onegin stanza 11. Who is not depicted on the coat of arms of Iceland? · polar bear Winning players amounted to 0 rubles. Your application is accepted Our manager will contact you soon Close There was an error sending Send again Past Simple Past Uncertain TimeExamples of offersAt the checked-in desk I showed my passport and suitcases, took the boarding pass and proceeded to the departure lounge. In the registration desk I showed my passport and my suitcases, took a boarding pass and went to the waiting room. Molly took some flour, poured in a glass of water, added three eggs and mixed everything. Molly took a little flour, poured a glass of water, added 3 eggs and mixed everything. I want to go somewhere I want to go somewhere Examples of offersWhat music did you like when you were 11 years old? What kind of music did you like at age 11? When I was a little boy I wanted to be a pilot. When I was a boy, I wanted to be a pilot. She used to play tennis when she was at school. She played tennis when she was at school. Examples of offersThe Olympic Games in London took place in 2012. The London Olympic Games were held in 2012. I moved to Milan two years ago and started working there. I moved to Milan two years ago and started working there. Thomas Edison made the world’s first electric light in 1887. Thomas Edison made the world's first light bulb in 1887. Examples of offersMozart wrote more than 600 pieces of music. Mozart has written over 600 pieces of music. We didn’t hear the phone. We did not hear the phone. Examples of offersThe train was going to Manchester from 6 to 8 PM. The train was on its way to Manchester between 6 and 8 pm. He was sitting by the window and was sipping a glass of wine the whole evening. He sat by the window and sipped a glass of wine all evening. Examples of offersWhile I was waiting for the bus, it started to rain. While I was waiting for the bus, it started to rain. The car started to make strange sounds when I was driving back home. The car began to make strange noises as I drove home. Examples of offersAnn was watching TV while Jane was doing physical exercises. Anna watched TV while Jane was doing exercises. They were discussing the company’s plans while the secretary was typing a letter. They discussed company plans while the secretary typed a letter. Examples of offersIt was a quiet summer evening in Provence. The sun was going down, the colors were mellowing, the light breeze was blowing, leaves were whispering and the lavender odor was coming into the house. It was a quiet summer evening in Provence. The sun was setting, the colors were getting a softer shade, a light breeze was blowing, the leaves rustled and the smell of lavender entered the house. Examples of offersThe police arrived quickly but the robbers had already gone. The police arrived quickly, but the robbers had already disappeared. When she got the salary she realized that her boss had given her a pay rise. When she received her salary, she realized that the boss had raised her salary. Examples of offersThe flowers faded because nobody had watered them. Flowers wilted because no one watered them. His skin was red and hurt him as he had got a sunburn. His skin was red and painful because he got a sunburn. Examples of offersHad you been smoking for 20 years before you decided to give up? Have you smoked for 20 years before quitting? The children had been playing outside the whole day before it started to rain. Children played outside all day before it started to rain.
Circumstances of the timeThe key to success in using past tenses correctly is knowing special marker words that refer to a specific time. They can help if we find it difficult to determine what time should be used in the English sentence. Each time has its own time indicator words. The main ones are shown in the summary table below.
In this article, you can find all the answers in the game "Who wants to become a millionaire?" For October 14, 2017 (October 14, 2017). First, you can see the questions asked by the players Dmitry Dibrov, and then all the correct answers in today's intellectual television game “Who wants to become a millionaire?” On 10/14/2017. Questions to the first pair of playersAlexander Rosenbaum and Leonid Yakubovich (200 000 - 200 000 rubles) 1. What is the name of the driver traveling long distances? Questions to the second pair of playersVera Brezhneva and Alexander Revva (200 000 - 0 rubles) 1. Where do you usually put jam during tea drinking? Answers to questions from the first pair of players
Answers to the questions of the second pair of players
The first script that arose on Earth is Sumerian. It happened about 5 thousand years ago. There are 2 hypotheses about the origin of writing:
Writing is presented in 3 primary foci, the connection of which is not proven:
Writing everywhere develops uniformly - from drawings to written characters. Pictography turns into a graphic system. Picturesque letters turn into language graphics not when drawings disappear (for example, drawings were used in Egypt, but this is not picture letters), but when we can guess what language the text is written in. |
... Great seen at a distance ... Alas! Contemporaries! it is not given to appreciate the meaning and significance of the event that takes place before their eyes. This also applies to the emergence of printing, which has made a real revolution in the dissemination of information, and therefore in the development of culture, scientific knowledge, literature and art. 
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